Cypop Childminding Course Unit 2 Accidents and Emergencies...

TASK 2 POLICIES AND PROCEDURES A policy – is a written statement about how you will work in one area of your practice A procedure are the actions you will take to carry out the procedure. They should be clear and simple. Your policy should start with a short, clear statement, eg: POLICY : â€Å"It is my policy to keep children safe when they are in my care† PROCEDURE: List the things that you will do to ensure that this statement is met. Say HOW you will do them and WHEN. You need to think about your practice and premises and make it individual to you and your home. ACCIDENT, ILLNESSES AND EMERGENCIES POLICY AT THE EARLY HUMAN CHILDMINDERS ACCIDENT POLICY Parents are asked to sign an accident book if†¦show more content†¦If I have more than 1 child in my care, I will use my best judgement as to how other children will be looked after. You would be consulted about this by phone. There is a parent ring round provision in the event of an emergency to inform all parents of children under my care. If parents do not arrive or I am unable to contact them, I will stay with the child until the appropriate treatment has been given and then return home where your child would be cared for until the arrival of the parents BEHAVIOUR POLICY It is my belief that children misbehave because they have not yet learnt how to react to feelings and needs in acceptable ways. The most common needs and feelings that can trigger unacceptable behaviour are – Attention, Boredom, Curiosity, Imitation, Self- preservation, Independence, Anger, Frustration, Anxiety, Fear, Excitement, Anticipation I believe in the Maria Montessori philosophy that confirms: Behaviour is learnt Behaviour can change Rewards work better than punishments Practice makes perfect Consistency is the key Never assume that a child misbehaves intentionally. Our children are very young and may not have learnt what appropriate behaviour is yet. Children need to know what we want them to do and it is important that we tell them what we want them to do rather than what we dont want them to do. Behaviour will be repeated if the underlying childrens needs remain unmet.

Comparative Value Of Survival Processing - 1209 Words

The brain is a complex system, and humans are constantly exposed to different things and experiences that need to be retained. But how does it choose which memories to retain and how does it retain in the first place? Adaptive Memory: The Comparative Value of Survival Processing (Nairne, Pandeirada, Thompson) The human brain is often biased towards different subjects. The limbic system is the beginning of the memorization process, and it allows for both memorization and learning. (Cretu, Simona-Mariana, 2013) The first experiment was used to observe survival-based processing by putting test subjects through 5 different scenarios. (Nairne, J. S., Pandeirada, J. S., Thompson, S. R., 2008) The human mind often retain things regarding survival. When put into a survival based scenario, things such as food-objects and objects needed to survive were much more retainable then personal experiences and pleasantness. The survival scenario was where one must survive in a stranded grassland in a foreign land. The test subjects were given a list of words, and was asked to rate the words by relevancy to the situation on a scale of 1(totally irrelevant) to 5(extremely relevant). The second task was to rate the pleasantness of each word based on the scale of 1 (totally unpleasant) to 5 (extremely plea sant). The third task focused on imagery. The test subject was asked to rate a list of words based on the difficulty of recalling mental images on a scale of 1(low imagery) to 5 (highShow MoreRelatedStudy On Lean Manufacturing And Its Outcomes Essay1652 Words   |  7 PagesDX1407837 Faculty of Management Studies, Acropolis Technical Campus, Indore INTRODUCTION The Lean Manufacturing approach is meant to transform non-value added activity into value added activity. Lean Manufacturing technology has its impetus and focus on whole operation. 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Monologue of Spider Free Essays

string(51) " for a few weeks, I came across a town of natives\." â€Å"Eeeeeeeeeew, yuk, I don’t want to sit next to HIM, Miss, that’s so unfair!† I went through so many comments like that every day. Everyone thought that if they were put next to me they would catch my ‘outcast disease’. I’ve never had a proper friend. We will write a custom essay sample on Monologue of Spider or any similar topic only for you Order Now You know, one who would give you their last Rolo, or spend hours trying to explain the homework to you, even if you didn’t get it by the end. All the years through infant school, then primary school and then secondary school were hell. My school grades were always bad. The teachers would say that I was lazy and couldn’t be bothered to do the work, when really that couldn’t have been more wrong. I tried so hard, I really did, but my mind just couldn’t concentrate. The words got muddled up on the page and letters switched around. All of this made it practically impossible for me to read and write. However I was thought of as idle and sluggish, because my speaking was almost immaculate. (Spider walking up a path) My bad grades were just another reason to spark off an argument between my parents. They used to love each other. It was fine when I was very small, I had no worries in the world and a loving mother and father. Then, when I was a little older, six or seven, maybe, my father had an affair. The affair only lasted a little while and my mum agreed to take my dad back, but they were never the same again. Dad would come back from the pub very late, maybe even very, very early in the morning, stinking of beer and fags. Then mum would start an argument with him. I used to hide in my room whilst this was going on. I would crouch under my bed-sheets, and hum to myself, trying to block out the shouting and screaming going on below me. I left school as soon as I could after my GCSE’s. I didn’t get any good marks in them either. My life was over. Would anyone actually notice if I just curled up and died? I had no qualifications and no college or sixth form to go to. Not that I would go anyway. I had put up with bullying all my life, college would be just the same, nasty comments, no friends, not being able to get to sleep, dreading what the next day held. The next few years of my life wasted away to nothing. I had no job, and not having any qualifications meant I wasn’t going to get one either. I just stayed at home, with mum nagging at me every day, telling me what a failure I was. I tried not to pay any attention. I think it made her feel better to take out her anger on someone. I didn’t take anything she said personally. Then, one morning, as I stared into the mirror, I stepped back and took a look at my life. Was this really what I wanted? No job. No friends. No life. If I did die, I think less than 20 people would turn up to my funeral. That thought really scared me. So, I decided I was going to do something with my life. Anything, just so I could say that I had done something and everything hadn’t been a complete waste. I made the biggest decision of my life. I sold my pride and joy, my beautiful, red Harley Davidson. It was given to me as a gift by my granddad, just before he passed away. Granddad never thought I was a failure. He believed in me, always encouraging me. I was devastated when he died. You have to move on though and that’s what I am doing now. I almost cried as I parted with it. I managed to get quite a good price for it though. That day I left my home for good. I left mother a note on the kitchen table, which simply said; â€Å"Mother, I am going away to make something of my life. Maybe I will come back to visit some day . . . Love you always, Gregory.† I left home, armed with the à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2000 I got for the bike and with my life in a blue hiking bag. * * * â€Å"Good afternoon ladies and gentlemen. On behalf of British Airways, I would like to wish you a pleasant flight. If at any time you require assistance, please press the red button above your head and a flight member will be with you soon to help. Have a nice flight!† I sat on the plane and stared out of the misty window. This was finally it. I had left all my problems in Bristol. Time to start a new life. I hadn’t thought about where I was going to go, I had just picked up a cheap, last minute ticket to Africa. I didn’t know much about Africa, well, nothing really. I’d watched a few documentaries back at home, but I hardly knew anything about it as a country. Five hours later I arrived in Morocco. (Four months later, Spider is now sat in a tree) I trudged through the wet, cold rainforest miserably for days on end. I lived on the food I could find, which was hardly anything. From the lack of food and what it was, I was experiencing excruciating hunger pains and I had a terrible bout of food poisoning. All this meant I was constantly in agonising pain. The only thing that kept me going, was the thought of how much worse it had been in Bristol. You see, mental pain hurts so much more than physical. Tablets can not obliterate pain inside and somehow the physical pain felt slightly comforting. I guess it was the same sort of adrenaline you would get if you cut yourself. After struggling my way through the rainforest for a few weeks, I came across a town of natives. You read "Monologue of Spider" in category "Papers" First of all I saw a group of little straw huts, with a fire blazing in between them. Around this fire, coloured African men with war paint on were doing an astounding dance. Whilst they danced they chanted an indescribable verse of strange sounds, which was accompanied by the steady beat of a large drum. I gazed upon them in awe, not completely sure what to do or think. My brain told me to run away, I had heard that natives do not take kindly to intruders, but my heart told me to stay a little longer and watch this fascinating ritual. Then, all of a sudden, a big chief native bellowed out something in African, which made everything come to a halt. The dancing stopped, the chanting stopped and the booming of the drum halted. I started to become very nervous and was just about to leave, when all of the natives started charging towards me! My heart jumped into my throat, as I stood there dumbfounded. I tried to run but my feet wouldn’t move an inch, they were getting closer and closer to me. Finally I started to run but it was too late. I felt my arms being twisted back as they grabbed hold of me. I struggled to get away but they were too strong. Then I felt a blow to the back of my head and that was the last thing I remembered. I woke up later that night with a thumping headache. It was dark and cold. I looked around me, then as my eyes adjusted to the light, I vaguely made out the hard walls beside me with one small hole looking out to the starry sky. I was lying on the floor of some kind of cell, a prison-like cell, on top of some straw. It was then that I realised the full extent of my actions. Obviously, the natives had captured me and there was no escape, minus the tiny window about five feet above the floor, and the iron barred door. â€Å"What would they do to me?† I asked myself, shaking at the thought. If only I had stayed back in Bristol, none of this would be happening now. I could be sat at home, watching the television, back with all my problems . . . â€Å"No† I thought again. I came here to get away from all that. Anything is better than that, even if it does mean being eaten alive by natives. (Spider is now looking quite upset, the shot is of him sat by a river) After that I must have dropped off. Strange how that happened in the given circumstances. I guess I was pretty tired, I hadn’t had a decent night’s sleep for ages. Everywhere I tried to sleep was freezing and damp and believe it or not nothing had been as comfy as that straw on the floor. I was awoken again by a deep, loud voice. I opened my eyes startled and saw before me a very large man with a very big spear and a plate. My eyes widened with fright. Looking gruff, he then placed the plate on the floor, which had what looked like a collection of small oranges on and shoved it along the floor to me. â€Å"Man eat food now,† he said, then grunted, and stomped out locking the door behind him. I sat there, my emotions mixed with confusion and fright. Should I eat it? It could be poisonous. Then again, the other option was to die from being eaten alive so . . .I opted for eating the food. Besides, I was so hungry. I grabbed some and shoved them in my mouth, hardly bothering to chew. They actually tasted really good. They were the sweetest things I’d eaten in ages. The plate was soon empty and my stomach growled for more. For a while I just sat there thinking. The sun shined brightly through the little hole in the wall and I heard the chirping of birds from outside. Then, all of a sudden, one bird flew straight through the tiny gap and banged headfirst into the wall on the other side of my cell. It fell to the floor; it’s small body motionless. A wave of sadness flowed over me as I stared at the poor creature. Then I heard a little â€Å"cheep, cheep† and the bird hopped up onto it’s feet again. â€Å"Thank goodness† I thought. It is saved. I looked at it again and as it tried to fly away, only one wing would work. It twisted and turned frantically trying to get away, but sadly it couldn’t. It soon ran out of energy and flopped to the floor again. I went over and saw it’s tiny chest beating, it’s wing was obviously broken. I studied around me for anything that would help the bird. I spotted a twig that looked quite strong and I gathered up some of the hay off of the floor. I then carefully attached the twig to the bird’s wing with the straw, to act as a kind of splint. The little thing was now too exhausted to be frightened which was good. Now aware that it’s wing was better, the bird stood up and tried to fly. At first it was just small jumps, which progressed to get bigger. I heard loud footsteps approaching the cell door and I backed towards the other side of the room. It was the same man as before, he had come to collect the plate. As he unlocked the door and came in, he saw the pretty bird hopping around with my attempt of a splint on. He stared at it in amazement. â€Å"You help this bird?† he questioned. â€Å"Yyyyesss†, I stammered, shaking like a leaf. He looked surprised. â€Å"Man is good, he help bird†, he said. Then did what I presumed to be a smile, I wasn’t too sure though. Then he left. A few minutes later, the man from before came in again, but this time followed by another member of the tribe. â€Å"You will come with us now†, the new man said, in an even deeper voice than the first one. They led me out of the cell and took me to the place where I had first laid eyes on this village. It was pretty early in the morning, so there wasn’t a fire, but everything else was pretty much the same. I was greeted by the faces of at least fifty natives, all covered in war paint and wearing native dress, staring at me like I was some sort of alien. I felt so out of place and scared. Whispering went on between the audience as I was led up to the front. Then, everyone went silent as the steady beat of the drum began once more. All of the tribe bowed down, as who I assumed to be the chief came out of one of the biggest little huts. He was wearing a beautifully ornate head-dress, accompanied by long, beige, cotton robes with tassels coming off. He walked solemnly up to me and stared at me straight in the eye. The whole tribe was silent now and even the drum had ceased it’s beating. â€Å"Man, you trespassed onto our land. Punishment for trespassing, is death!† he said, almost shouting at the end. Everyone gasped and started their whispering again. I just stood there trembling. â€Å"But!† he carried on â€Å"you have shown great kindness and selflessness in helping little sacred saskarpelli bird. Therefore your punishment has been lifted. You will no longer die† I sighed a huge sigh of relief and my heart returned to it’s normal pace. â€Å"And,† he started again, â€Å"As a show of our gratitude, I would like to make you an honorary member of our tribe†, he smiled and the crowd started shouting and cheering. Before I knew it I was being dressed up and having war paint painted on my face. I spent the whole day with them, chanting and dancing, like I had seen them do the night before. It was truly the most amazing, strange and scary forty-eight hours of my life! The next day I bid my farewells and carried on my journey. I had a full stomach and plenty more food to keep me going on my way until my next adventure . . . How to cite Monologue of Spider, Papers

Knowledge Carry Essay Example For Students

Knowledge Carry Essay For example during a test it is unacceptable to aide a fellow classmate because that is categorized as cheating and this does no good to the person who is being helped as is it is only giving them momentary aide to a problem they are having on a test rather than helping him learn the concept he or she should have learned in the first place. The test is meant to examine whether the student is smart and responsible enough to obtain the information from class or the books. When you help them pass a test they couldnt have passed on their own then youre helping an incompetent person to get a degree and thats ethically proper. Of course theres a shady area here for some give and take when your fellow classmate merely forgot some lengthy and complex formula but does remember how to implement and apply it and what it stands for then its not a crime or considered wrong to help them out. While offering the student aide beforehand in preparation for the test is an acceptable form of sharing knowledge and ethically proper in assuring that everyone is given a fair chance at making a good grade on the test. This logic can also be applied to everyone’s life in that in that the decisions you make in life are clear representations on what ethically someone felt the need to tell you or to withhold from you. A teacher chooses to teach you it is up to the student if he wishes to learn from the teacher. The teacher knows that it is her responsibility to teach the students that’s why she is receiving the money she makes which motivates them even more to accomplish the task they have been set forth to accomplish. In closing though we can clearly see how the decisions of one individual affect the masses and not only himself. There are some instances where it is okay to withhold information and others where you must share the knowledge for the common good. How this is determined id by morally analyzing the situation and ethically making a decision that is right not just beneficial to you. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our International Baccalaureate Theory of Knowledge section.

Ethical Dimension of Religion Essay Example

Ethical Dimension of Religion Paper To many people, the term ethical strikes a powerful meaning of moral principals, which tie In deeply with the roots of many religions. Each religion holds a different view on what Is ethically right and depending on this, other dimensions of religion are shaped. The ethical dimension of religion encompasses moral conduct and living a good existence that lead toward the achievement of final liberation. Ionian Smart, a pioneer in the field of religious studies and the author of the book, Worldviews: Agricultural Exploration of Human Beliefs, breaks down the dimensions of the religions of Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, Islam, and many more. According to Smart, the depth to which morality plays a role in each religion depends on the distinctive beliefs in the ideal human being. Each religion defines their ideal self by a higher power; The Christian looks to Christ and to the saints and heroes of the tradition. The Buddhist looks to the Buddha, the Muslim to Muhammad, the Hindu to Ram and Krishna and others, the Taoist to Ala-TTS, and he Consultant to Confucius (Smart, 105). The Influential ethical belief of utilitarians has extremely Impacted the Western culture with the underlying meaning of whether something helps produce human happiness or reduce human suffering (Smart, 105). Utilitarianism defines the core values that an individual contains which is often related to the way that human beings interact with each other, believed by some to be the meaning of existence. We will write a custom essay sample on Ethical Dimension of Religion specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Ethical Dimension of Religion specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Ethical Dimension of Religion specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer There is a recent field of study in religion called comparative religious ethics which seeks to outline the extinctive ethical structures from all over the world with all different religions. The comparative action of this field of study works to correlate moral values with kinds of doctrines, myths, and experiences (Smart, 107). Generally speaking, all religions are similar in the sense that they follow basic rules of moral manner; Not to steal, not to lie, not to kill, not to have certain kinds of sexual relations (Smart 107). Despite these general saltcellars, the details behind them defer greatly between many popular religions. Comparing Christianity to the Islamic religion, they diverge when It comes to marriage partners. For Christianity, men typically have one wife and divorce is frowned upon while the Muslim can have as many as four wives with divorce being in the original legal system. The moral idea of do not kill varies within religions of Christianity and the Quakers because Christians believe that killing may be used for protection in the instance of war while the Quakers believe that killing is not an option altogether. These difference relay the message that although there is the moon belief of do not kill some religions believe that it is necessary for exceptions while others do not. Many religions believe that there is something to obtain after death, whether It Is life after death In the form of reincarnation or reaching the ultimate goal of a perfect human being, called nirvana. In Hinduism they follow the rules of morality within the eightfold path and believe the eventual objective of existence Is to reach nirvana. To do so, followers of this religion must abide by the law, which they believe is important aspect of this is the idea of karma, known to represent ones actions in their lives and what comes after those actions; Karma is the law of reward and penalty within the framework of rebirth, in which my status as human or animal or whatever results from my acts in previous lives (Smart, 107). The eightfold path is a perfect example of the ethical dimensions of Buddhism that leads to achieving deliverance. The major concept of ethics is the decision of what is right and wrong and who or what decides what is right and wrong. Based on the ideal human being that each religion idealizes, everlasting freedom after death is decided. Despite all the difference that each religion specifically has, they all contain a sense of the Beyond in order to see anew the sacredness of the person (Smart, 117). Moral conduct and living a good existence eventually leads to the attainment of the final release, or at least toward getting a better life next time around (Smart, 1 13), which ultimately summarizes the concept of the ethical dimension of religion.

Free Essays on Holden Caulfield

. If this teacher didn’t like the way one of the student’s parents looked he would not stay and talk with them, just shake their hand and move onto a better looking couple. Holden hates how Mr. Haas runs away from the people he does not like, but ironically Holden turns around and does the same thing. After already being purposely kicked out of many schools, Holden is kicked ... Free Essays on Holden Caulfield Free Essays on Holden Caulfield Would the Real Holden Please Stand Up? Do you ever stop and really think about people and the way they act? Holden Caulfield, the contradicting and judgmental main character in J.D. Salinger’s novel The Catcher in the Rye does quite frequently, and has even come up with his own stereotype, which he likes to refer to as phonies. To Holden, people who lie are some of the biggest phonies, as well as not being yourself, showing off money or looks, fake personalities/attitude, and not practicing what your preach. Fake people aggravate Holden to the point where he feels sick, and has to get away from them. After flunking out of many different schools to rid himself of all the â€Å"crooks,† lying to friends, family and strangers to get what he wants, and doing the exact opposite of what he thinks others should be doing, Holden turns out to be a phony himself. Running away and trying to isolate himself is one of Holden’s many methods of coping with fake people. He also likes to lie extensively and ab out everything, it doesn’t matter the subject or the person(s). Although Holden gets very upset when other people cannot seem to follow their own advice, it is evident that he can’t either. Despite his disgust of counterfeit people Holden ends up becoming the perfect example of the personality he hates. One of Holden’s biggest pet peeves is when people run away or hide from what they don’t like, something he seems to do a great deal of the time. Mr. Haas, a former headmaster of Holden, is one of the â€Å"biggest phonies† in Holden’s words. If this teacher didn’t like the way one of the student’s parents looked he would not stay and talk with them, just shake their hand and move onto a better looking couple. Holden hates how Mr. Haas runs away from the people he does not like, but ironically Holden turns around and does the same thing. After already being purposely kicked out of many schools, Holden is kicked ...

Freytag pyramid used in A Farewell to Arms Essay

Freytag pyramid used in A Farewell to Arms - Essay Example In a work, â€Å"Freytag’s pyramid demonstrates how rising action, conflict, and resolution follow one another to create a narrative or drama† (Thursby 24). The novel, Farewell to Arms (1929) by the famous American writer, Earnest Hemingway takes the themes; war and love. The book has been noted for its resemblance with the life of the author himself. The novel is set on the Italian battlefield in Gorizia, Italy. It portrays a deep passion of love between Frederick Henry and Catherine Barkley. It is praised for its resemblance with many of the Shakespearean Plays. The author Earnest Hemingway had compared the novel with Romeo and Juliet of Shakespeare. Just like a renaissance play it has five books in it and each book stands for each element of the Freytag’s pyramid. To begin with, the first aspect of Freytag’s pyramid is exposition. According to it a play must introduce the characters, settings and should constitute a moving incident. The novel, if analys ed in this background, gives the setting as the warfare of Italian army during the First World War, and introduces Frederick Henry, the hero of the novel, as the ambulance driver in the Italian front. Even from the very beginning some speciality in Henry is noted as he was the only soldier who has not ridiculed the priest. The relationship with Rinaldi makes Henry introduced to the heroine of the novel, Catherine Barkley, the English nurse at the military hospital in Milan. The shell attack and Henry’s knee wounds happen to be the move of the exposition in the novel. This makes the heroine attached towards Henry. Both the warfront setting and the introduction of the theme love affirm the accomplishment of the first element of the pyramid, exposition in the novel. The second book of the novel shows the development of love between Henry and Catherine. Even though there are conflicts in their characters, the aspect of love takes root in their hearts deep. The thoughts of Henry a s a lover and as a soldier show the conflict in the character and so Catherine too develop such a conflict in her mind. The pregnancy of Catherine shows the ‘rising action’ of the book second. Here the readers can find out overwhelming conflicts in his minds regarding his duty as a soldier in the Italian front. Climax of Freytag’s pyramid has been defined as, â€Å"the turning point in the action, the crisis at which the rising action turns and becomes the falling action. In a five act tragedy, this usually occurs at the end of the third act† (Lenhart, & Edgar 211). The novel witnesses the going back of Henry to service, still bewildered, whether to adopt love or war. The retreat of the Italian army at Caporetto shows Henry’s hatred towards war and its destructions. The killing of sergeant by Henry and battle police’s arrest and the final jumping into the flooded river constitute the climax of the novel. The falling action of the novel starts with the incidents that happened after the climax. Henry’s search for Catherine first at Milan then at Stressa shows his desire to denounce war completely from their life. The life at Stressa with Catherine was peaceful in the beginning but the probability of arrest by the Italian army compelled Henry move to Switzerland. The sudden escape of Henry and Catherine in a row boat and the struggle of rowing to Switzerland in a very opposing climate

Human rights Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Human rights - Research Paper Example The idea of human rights was even witnessed during the American as well as the French revolution during the period of 18th century (Forsythe, 2009, p.286). During the 19th century, the idea of human right was also promoted by John Stuart Mill who believed that human beings should have the right to speak freely, assemble and should have the right to perform any actions as long as that action does not violates the rights of other human beings (Haggerty, 2000, p.268). Hegel was another great philosopher who promoted the idea of human rights and specially paid emphasis on freedom of a person and said that all individuals should have the right to own assets, get into contracts with other human beings and should be protected through rules and regulations created by the government (Forsythe, 2009, p.134). Human Rights Laws Several nations have their own separate human rights laws in order to protect the people of their nation and these laws have been created to protect individuals from the atrocities of the government and the people who violate human rights. Several organizations that exist throughout the world have defined certain human rights and those nations who do not operate according to their definition are held responsible for violation of human rights and are considered as nations that have no regards for human life. Human rights are not separate laws that have been created to protect human life, but the ideology of human rights has become a part of constitutions throughout the world. Human rights can be witnessed in the constitution of US as well as France. Several laws within the constitution of the US are made to protect the human rights. These laws includes the 14th Amendment of the US constitution which states that all... According to the definition of human rights proposed by the United Nations the characteristics of human rights include: universalism and inalienable. This means that all nations should indulge in the promotion and protection of human rights and human freedom irrespective of their socio economic and political structures. The United Nations even states that human rights cannot be infringed upon by the states except in certain scenarios. For example: An individual’s right to freely express himself should not be violated until the right is harming others and is used to indulge in criminal activity. The UN even identifies human rights as being dependant on each other and cannot be divided. This means that all the rights that have been allotted to human beings are dependent on each other to function in a proper manner. For example: the right of freedom of speech and right to assemble are dependent on each other because without the right of freedom of speech, one cannot protest again st the government.

Intoduce two organizations from United Nations Essay

Intoduce two organizations from United Nations - Essay Example The United Nation’s General Assembly is the main organization within the UN. The General Assembly is the primary organization for deliberation. This organization contains all of the nations that are a part of the United Nations. In terms of how frequently this organization meets, it’s noted that regular yearly sessions occur. Regarding hierarchy, â€Å"the organization elects a yearly president that oversees the presiding meetings† (Fasulo, p. 21). The annual meeting occurs over a two-week period. During this time all organizations are given an opportunity to address the assembly. The formal proceedings of this assembly feature an opening statement by the Secretary-General. This statement is followed by a statement from the president of the assembly. After lengthy debate and presentations occur the General Assembly will oftentimes vote on important issues. In terms of the voting structure, it’s necessary for two-thirds of the organization to vote and agree on an issue before it is enacted. There are a great amount of potential issues that could be considered at the General Assembly convention. Many of the predominant issues are human rights concerns. Another prominent United Nation’s organization is the Security Council. This organization’s primary responsibility is the establishment and maintenance of peace and security among countries. While the General Assembly has the power to pass security concerns, the Security Council is recognized as being the only organization that can pass biding regulations regard security concerns. While the General Assembly is composed of all nations that are members of the United Nations, the Security Council is restricted to certain nations. In these regards, â€Å"15 members are on the Security Council board, with five permanent members and ten non-permanent members† (Mesler, pg. 111). There are a number of elements related to this structure

Overeating In Youths And Adolescents Health And Social Care Essay

Overeating In Youths And Adolescents Health And Social Care Essay Overeating is a major social problem. Throughout the history, perception of overeating has been changing with time owing to the changing social, political, and economic situations. Overeating is an eating disorder which is centrally characterized by addiction to food that leads to binge eating. Individuals who suffer from compulsive eating disorder suffer from episodes of uncontrolled eating. It has been shown to have psychological connection as these individuals tend to experience pressured and frenzied feeling. As a result, the individuals continue eating even after they become uncomfortably full. Binge eating tends to be followed by intense guilt and sometimes depression. While bulimics will purge themselves with vomiting or use of laxatives, individuals suffering from compulsive eating disorder rarely vomit or use laxatives and hence they continue to accumulate weight. Overeating has been recognized as one of the factors contributing to increased incidences of overweight and obes ity which are major public health concerns. Overeating is a social problem which means that the problem has taken different dimensions throughout history. It has been defined and understood in different ways depending on the changing political, social, and economic conditions. Even during the medieval period, overeating was recognized but it was not understood the same way it is understood today. This implies that understanding of the problem has been changing with time and though it was recognized as a sign of wellness in the past, it is considered a major health problem today. Overeating today affects people across the social demographic divide. The problem is today compounded by social values and health concerns. The government has put in place different programs with an aim of mitigating the effect of the problem but little has been achieved. Despite the current understanding of overeating as a social and health problem, and the programs that have been instituted to mitigate its effects, it still remains a major social and health concerns in the world today. Historical Background of Overeating Overeating is a social problem that has changed over time. Since the medieval period, overeating has been understood in different ways depending on the changing economic, social, and political environments. The problem has also been understood in different ways depending on the dominant social values and the changing philosophy of social welfare (Levi et al., 2008). Definition and understanding of the problem have transformed with changes taking place in the environment. The current definition and understanding of the problem is very different from how it was understood during the medieval period. In order to define and understand overeating, it is important to first look at the historical definition and understanding of the problem. Historical understanding of binge eating dates back to the medieval period. At a time when the society was highly stratified, binge eating was understood as a sign of excesses (Tanofsky-Kraff, 2008). It was mainly practiced by those who had excess to eat, mainly those in the upper class. This means that the understanding of overeating during that time was mainly engraved in indulgence since these were only those who could afford plenty of food who ate more. Interestingly, overeating was not recognized as a health problem during the middle ages. Historical accounts have revealed that the ancient Greece and Arabia had texts which showed description of binging and purging which means both were recognized at that time. Also in ancient Rome, historians have shown the existence of constructed vomitoriums places where individuals or feasters threw up food. This is a sign of existence of overeating even at those ancient times. It has recorded that Roman Emperor Claudis who ruled between 10 B.C. to A.D. 54 and Vitellius who ruled between A.D 15 to A.D. 19 were both bulimic. These historical accounts affirm to the fact that eating disorders were recognized as early as 10 B.C. Although it was not recognized, overeating was the main cause of obesity in ancient times. Obesity, which results from overeating, is an age-old problem whose perception has changed over time. During ancient civilization, obesity was perceived in much different ways just like other overeating disorders. For example, ancient Egyptians considered obesity as disease. There have been wall drawing in Egypt which depicted obesity as an illnesses. There was also the famous statuette of Venus figurines, which depicted the image of an obese female torso and which are presumed to have played major roles in carrying out rituals. Ancient Chinese also showed that they understood the problem of obesity and its effect on the longevity of the problem. The Aztecs firmly believed that obesity could be considered as a supernatural problem which was affliction of gods. Hippocrates, who is regarded as the father of medicine, recognized that there were many sudden deaths which could be attributed to obesi ty, and this was expressed clearly in his writings. However, this perception changed from place to place. In areas where food was scarce, overeating and consequential obesity were considered as signs and symbols of wealth and a higher social status. In some African cultures, brides were plumped up in order to prepare them for child bearing period. Before a wedding, a bride was plumped up until she reached the expected weight to assist her to bear a child. This shows that overeating and obesity were perceived in different ways. However, serious focus on the prevalence of eating disorders did not take place until the 19th and 20th century. At the time, there was great scientific advance which provided for research framework to carry out studies to understand the existence of these diseases. For example, it was in 1979 that a British psychiatrist, Gerald Russell, made official description of existence of bulimia. He is the one who gave it its current scientific name, bulimia nervosa. He had carried out a scientific study between 1972 and 1978 (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). What sets apart the description of Russell from those of ancient Greece and Arabia is that Russell identified that bulimia was carried out in order to cut weight, while the ancient studies did not identify the reason for existence of binging and bulimia. Throughout history, overeating has been perceived in different ways. This perception has changed greatly with changing times, especially in the course of 1900s. For example, French designer Paul Poiret showed that overeating and consequential obesity were unfashionable. Poiret designed skin-revealing women clothes in order to reveal the body image. In the course of the 19th century, the rate of obesity continued to increase at an alarming rate as a result of different factors, among them change in eating patterns, especially overeating and changing lifestyle. Despite the historical records of existence of binge eating, it had not been recognized as a health problem until 1959. In 1959 psychiatrist and researcher Albert Stunkard first described overeating or binge eating as a social problem (Cooper and Fairburn, 2003). He first described it as Night Eating Syndrome and later the term Binge Eating Disorder was used to describe overeating behavior that did not have nocturnal component. This meant that the problem was recognized as a social problem only in 20th century despite its existence for many years. Although the problem has been observed for a number of years, there has not been any scientific study that looked into the trends of overeating. At the time Stunkard described the problem, he had observed there was increasing number of people who were becoming overweight. He noted that overweight individuals had more incidents of overeating compared to the rest of the population (Levi et al., 2008). The clinical observation convinced Stunkard that overeating was somehow related to obesity and only individuals with obesity showed recurrent episodes of overeating. With increase in the number of obese individuals owing to the changing lifestyle, it was easy for Stunkard to relate the prevalence pattern and the risk it posed to the general population. Since then, there have been several studies that have looked into the problem in greater details. From the perception of a sign of excesses during ancient times, binge eating was now recognized as a health issues (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005 ). Since Stunkard recognized the problem in overweight individuals, it was not recognized by the medical authorities in the country despite a number of consequent studies that have outlined the effects of the problem. It was not until 1994 when Binge Eating Disorder (BED) was introduced in the DSM-IV criteria. However it was introduced as a provision psychiatric disorder that required further research. It is important to understand that during 1950s when the problem was recognized as a major social problem, there were a lot of changes that were taking place in the social, political, and economical environment. This period marked the end of the Second World War and the world was drawing the attention away from war and political bickering to focus on social and health welfare of the population. The end of the Second World War ushered the world into a new era that was more focused on social welfare of the people. Since the turn of the century, the world has been much occupied with First and Second World War and the Great Depression that have wiped away wealth and people scrambled for food rations. This means during the period after the end of the Second World War, people could access more food. Change in technology has been recognized as another factor that contributed to increased incidence of overeating (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). The changing nature of life, mainly driven by technology, led to food process technologies that made food available outside the kitchen. Traditionally, food was only found and prepared in the kitchen which meant that people had limited chances of eating. However, the introduction of modern food processing technology, especially with the emergence of fast and convenient food, people have more chances of eating and this factor contributed to incidence of overeating. With availability of food in different public spaces, and with emergence of food chains like MacDonalds, which have been established in almost every corner, people are encouraged to eat more often (Levi et al., 2008). The increased incidence of overeating led to rising cases of obesity and this was one of the factors that drew attention to the issue of overeating. Changes in social life, especially in working conditions, were another factor that contributed to the increased cases of overeating. Unlike times when people labored for hours in the field, the emergence of office jobs where manual jobs are left to machines encourages people to eat more (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). As the number of working hours reduced and more work was taken over by machines, people had more time to relax and eat. Even at work, the emergence of fast food meant that people could carry food to work and continued to eat while working. There were a number of changes at home that also marked increased cases of overeating. The emergence of television sets and other entertainment devices stationed at home meant that people spent more hours watching TV while eating. At the end, they ate more than they would have eaten if they were not watching TV (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). Apart from positive impacts of technological advancement and wealth creation like having TVs at home, there are other psychological changes that come with change in life that have been pointed out as possible causes of overeating. As people became busy and pre-occupied and the economy changed, the level of stress kept on rising (Levi et al., 2008). High levels of stress and depression have also been pointed out as possible reasons why people engaged in overeating. Research evidence has shown that compared to the past, economic crisis of modern time, where life is centered on economic performance, has contributed to high levels of stress. It is therefore evident that throughout history, definition and understanding of overeating has dramatically changed in line with emerging social, political, and economic trends. Earlier definition of overeating is quite different from the modern one. Binge eating has changed from a sign of wealth in ancient times to a health problem that is attributed to the changes in the modern lifestyle. While the overeating and obesity have remained a problem for the wealth in earlier times, most of the obese individuals nowadays are found in the middle and low class. Description of the overeating in youths and adolescents Since the 1950s, overeating and accompanying overweight and obesity complications have become major public health concerns in the United States. As has been the tradition with the United States government, it responds with policies aimed at mitigating the effect of the problem but rarely puts in place policies to prevent the problem. Since overeating was noted as a public health concern in 1950s, it took the government several years before any policy was put in place to address the issue. With time, overeating, coupled with changing life style including reduced engagement in physical exercises has led to overweight and obesity, which are considered to be the major public health issues facing the country (Tanofsky-Kraff, 2008). Binge eating disorder is currently a major problem that cuts across the whole population. Each and every year, there are millions of Americans who succumb to different threatening eating disorders, but binge eating remains a major problem across the whole popul ation. It is estimated that about 16 million Americans suffer from one or more eating disorders including anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa (Tanofsky-Kraff, 2008). However, a higher number, 25 million Americans, are documented to suffer from binge eating. Interestingly, the problem is more pronounced in women than in men. Statistics shows that more than 90% of those who are affected by these problems are women (Hudons et al., 2007). Unlike other health problems that have been known to occur with age, either very early or very late in life, eating disorders occur in the middle life. It has been documented that about 86% of individuals who report eating disorders are slightly below the age of 20, which means the problem starts developing early in life. For example, research findings show that about 11% of high school students have one or more eating disorders, with binge eating being a major problem (Raderprograms, 2010). However, research shows conflicting results. A number of studies have pointed out that the prevalence of binge eating is not clear in the population. This is because the prevalence differs from place to place depending on the social economic status. However, it has been shown that the prevalence of binge eating in the general population ranges between 1-3% (Bull, 2004). As was earlier observed in 1950s, binge eating remains a major problem facing overweight and obese individuals. A number of studies have clearly shown that among the overweight and obese individuals, binge eating rangers from 25% and more (Bull, 2004). In adolescents and youth, binge eating has been described as a major health concern. Studies have shown that lost of control eating or BED is prevalent in young people not only in the United States but in the whole world (Tanofsky-Kraff, 2008). Binge eating is associated cross-sectionally with adiposity in children and youth and has been identified as a major factor predisposing them to overweight and obesity. Overeating is therefore a major social problem not only in adults but in youths. There are several reasons why the society is getting concerned with the problem of overeating. Since the second half of the 20th century, increasing incidence of overeating has attracted public attention owing to the social and health ramification on the general population. Overeating was recognized as a problem associated with obesity. The reason why the society is becoming more concerned with increasing incidence of overeating can be related to the rising cases of overweight and obesity in the population. Obesity is an epidemic in the United States that affects people across the social demographic divide. It is estimated that about three quarters or accurately more than 64% of American adults are overweight while 26% are obese (Levi et al., 2008). The number of obese people in the United States has grown steadily from 19.4% in 1997 to the recent 26.6% in 2007 (Hudons et al., 2007). By 2015, it is estimated that about 75% of the United States population will be overweight while 41% will be obese (Hudons et al., 2007).While obesity has been considered a problem for the aging individuals, demographic prevalence portrays a worrying trend as children and adolescents shows increasing cases of overweight and obesity. In the last two decades, it has been observed that children and youths are becoming victims of complications associated with overeating, with 15-25% of American children considered obese while the number keeps on growing (Tanofsky-Kraff, 2008). Worrying trends show that one in every five children is overweight and has a higher likelihood of becoming obese. By any standards, these statistics are worrying and call for action from the concerned stakeholders. The above statistics clearly reveals why overeating is considered a major public health concern. What is more worrying is the observation that overweight and obese children and teens are likely to become obese when they grow up to adults. This means that there is likelihood of having a generation of obese adults in the cause of time if nothing is done (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). Although there are multiple sources which contributed to overweight and obesity, overeating has been singled out as the main cause of obesity in children and teens. A recent study that was carried out by World Health Organization Collaboration Center for Obesity Prevention found out that while researchers have long faulted decrease in physical activity as the main cause of obesity, increase in overeating should rather be pointed out as the main cause of obesity. For children, overeating rather than other compounding factors is the main cause of obesity (RWJF, 2010). If the above trend is anything to go by, then overeating should be a major concern for all individuals in the society and indeed, it is a call for the government to come up with measures to mitigate the effects of overeating in children. There are many social, economic, political, and media forces that have garnered to define overeating as a major social problem. Socially, the perception of overeating has been changing with time and today it is no longer perceived as a sign of wealth and excesses but rather as a social problem. Research has shown that children who are overweigh and obese are likely to be bullied or face cynicism from their peers. They are perceived to be irresponsible, which means they suffer socially. This means that overeating is no longer accepted as a social practice as it leads to overweight and obesity (Levi et al., 2008). Economically, people are becoming well off and the living standards have really improved. However researches point out that overeating is not an economic problem as it cuts across the divide, which means even children and teens living in low income areas are suffering from the problem. This means that there are more underlying economic factors, like the model of economy that lays less emphases on hard work that increases calorie consumption which has conspired to aggravate the problem. Political forces that have lead to recognition of the problem include government policies that have defined the issue. In 1994, the government took a bold step to include BED into the DSM-IV criteria which means it was already recognized as a health problem. Through the relevant organizations, the government has funded a number of programs aimed at mitigating the problem (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). However, the most instrumental force that has shaped overeating as a social problem is the media. Now and then, the media carries out campaigns that are aimed at keeping children out of overeating. The media has been critical of multinational corporations like McDonalds which have encouraged overeating. On the other hand, media portrayal of desired body size, especially for teenage girls, forces them to engage in weight loss programs that lead to emotional binge eating. The public understanding of overeating is coming to a convergence. As has been reviewed earlier, ancient understanding of overeating was quite different from the modern understanding. There were some societies that encouraged overeating in women to give them strength to bear children while in some societies, overeating was perceived to come with health effects. Nowadays, with the increased understanding of consequence of overeating in reference to overweight and obesity, public definition of the overweight portrays it as a major psychological problem. According to DSM-IV criteria, binge eating is defined as a disorder marked by eating larger than usual amount of food in a short period of time, most specific, within a period of two hours. It is lack of control on ones eating behavior or eating that cannot be controlled (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). In this definition, there are important values and ideologies that have are put into consideration. Most important, the definition puts in to consideration the health value in belief that while eating is good; it may come with consequential health effects. Concretely, overeating in youths and adolescent is understood as a psychological and behavioral problem that comes with grave consequences especially overweight and obesity. However, overeating is still understood in different terms by different social segments. For some parents, overeating in their children may be a sign of growth in appetite (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). Parents understand that throughout the life span, children feeding behavior keeps on changing and therefore overeating in adolescents corresponds to nutrients needs in their body, which means they do not consider it to be a problem. However, for others, overeating is already recognized as a major health problem and hence they are doing their best to assist their children to overcome it. Prevalence patterns show that Binge Eating Disorder affects millions of people in the United States, especially youths and adolescents. However, the problem is more pronounced in females than males. In the United States, the problem affects 3.5% females compared to 2% males (Decaluwe and Braet, 2003). The problem is also more pronounced in individuals who are overweight and obese as more than 30% of individuals seeking weight reduction treatment have shown signs of BED (Decaluwe and Braet, 2003). The fact that binge eating is twice common in females than males shows that the problem is not related to caloric needs as assumed by most parents. The most devastating effect of binge eating is that it leads to health complications like overweight and obesity. Binge eating leads to increased adiposity in children and adults which increases incidence of overweight and obesity. Since the problem cuts across the social demographic divide, including wealthy people and those from low income area s, there are no social injustices which are associated with the problem. Generally, it can be recognized as a problem associated with increase in wealth, modern food processing technology, and changes in different spheres of life (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). Social value and political ideologies have impacted differently on the way the problem is viewed. As social value keeps on changing, so has the public perception of overweight and obesity. For example, traditionally, people with big bodies who can currently be categorized obese were valued and viewed as well up. However, this has changed with the changing media perception of ideal body weight. If any, there are few individuals in the society who want to maintain big bodies (Decaluwe and Braet, 2003). This means that if overweight is being viewed negatively in the society, binge eating, which is a causative factor for overweight and obese conditions are also viewed negatively by the people. Politically, there has been less government concern on obesity and overweight until recently when the government took bold steps in face of public threat posed by overweight and obesity incidences to institute measures to deal with the problem, for example inclusion of overeating in DSM-IV (Levi et al., 2008). Overweight and obesity are tied to the political ideology of capitalism which is defining the modern society. In capitalism, individuals amass more, and indulge in culture of consumerism hence driving forward the culture of overeating (Levi et al., 2008). Overeating can be explained using different social theories. One of the recent theories that have been used to explain overeating is reversal theory which explains overeating as a response to high-tension stress (Sue et al, 1998). This theory has shown that women who engage in weight reduction program suffer from tension and stress which forces them to engage in overeating. The same model has also been expressed by psychosomatic theory which shows that emotional eating results from confusion and apprehension related to emotional states that are in turn related to hunger and satiety (Terry, 2005). Another theory that explains overeating is habituation theory which suggest that when one habituates or adjusts a to food cues, one is less likely to get satisfied and keeps on consuming food (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). In line with this theory, social learning theory also shows that overeating is a learned behavior that is learned due to physical surrounding and interactions. Cognitive th eories have pointed out that overeating is deeply rooted in cognitive process which means it is a cognitively driven process. This means that the brain is motivated to eat more and more with no feeling of satiety (Terry, 2005). In reference to the above theories, it can be deduced that there are biological, social, and psychological causes of binge eating. In biological causes, it has been revealed that body parts and hormones like hypothalamus which control appetite may fail to send correct message for hunger and fullness and hence lead to overeating. Psychological sources have shown that depression and binge eating are closely linked to each other. The U.S Department of Health and Human Services shows that more than half of binge eaters are depressed or have suffered signs of depression in life (Levi et al., 2008). On social factors, it has been shown that social pressure adds shame on binger eaters but this only fuels their emotional eating (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). Environme ntal factors like parental practice of use of food to conform children fuels binge eating. A causal chain that explains pathway to overeating may be constructed as follows: Ideology/Values -Social influence desired body size, peer influence -Economic influence change in working patters, convenient and fast food, less physical work -Media influence pressure on desired body size Positive influence Increased food intake due to positive influence like availability of food, eating while watching TV, and others Emotional eating Triggered by stress/depression Effects Overweight Obesity Insomnia Relationship problems Suicidal thoughts Depression and anxiety Overeating causes many health related physical, emotional, and social problems, including overweight and obesity, stress, insomnia, suicidal thoughts, and many others. Depression, anxiety, and sometimes substance abuse have been pointed out to be possible side effects of binge eating (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). Binge eating also comes with social problems like interference relationship and career. In terms of effects and benefits, overeating can be looked from two angles, from the point of view of those who benefit and those who suffer from the problem. To start with, there are much more people who suffer from the problem than those who benefit from it. Those who suffer from the problem include individuals who are suffering the consequences of such problems like overweight and obesity, close family and relates who are related to the individual and also suffer from the problem, the government which has to incur billions of dollars in treating complications associated with the problem, and many others (Hudons et al., 2007). On the other hand, those who benefit from the problem include businesses which deal with food and others like pharmacies which sell medical supplements to deal with complications of overweight and obesity. Currently, there are many programs which are dedicated to mitigation of the problem. It is important to note that most of these programs have taken the approach of providing education to youths and adolescents on causes, effects, dangers, and ways to prevent overeating. While the government has instituted such policies as school feeding policy that encourage healthy eating, most of the programs are run by the private sector in conjunction with the government, most of them existing in their own microenvironment. Some of these programs include Focus Adolescent Services, The Center- A Place of Hope, Eating Disorder Hope, and many others. These programs have used the most accessible information dissemination media, mainly through the internet to reach as many youths and adolescents as possible.

Slavery :: Slavery Essays

Slavery is an issue we may never be free of, we may think this is bad but the Romans including people such as Hammurabi and Aristotle believed that slavery was essential to life and would have thought that this wouldn't matter. This especially didn't matter since slaves were only seen as objects or tools. Although there are still people who probably believe in what the Romans did, but now we now classify all people as equal. Anyone could have become a slave if they either: 1. Committed a crime 2. Were a prisoner of war 3. Not have roman citizenship 4. Sold into slavery These were the most obvious reasons for becoming a slave in roman times and yet only one of these points are still popular for today and that is number 4, because most slaves of today come from poor families. It is the poorer class of people today that are the target mainly because they would be so desperate that they would sell their children into slavery for a small profit. Nowadays slavery is restricted to jobs in more remote locations for obvious reasons so you wouldn't find slaves working for or around the city, But rather in and around households in the country. Slaves back in roman times however were forced to work in the city and for anyone they were sold to. They had a huge range of jobs stretching from household slaves to field slaves and mining slaves to gladiators (Gladiators were created solely for the purpose of entertainment due to a lot more slaves). This was normal for Romans since they depended on slaves to do everything that they didn't want to do. Today some of them are given the very worst jobs like prostitution, work in factories, sugar cane fields and even private forms of work. As I stated before, it is mainly poor families that are somewhat involved in either been taken or sold into slave labor but it can also be people from several different racial backgrounds. Many come from places like China, Africa, Russia, South Africa and Egypt. In ancient times war was a popular place for capturing people to be sold into slavery this gave the army a lot of its money and power, what I am saying is that Romans captured merciless people and sent them back to their country. Hammurabi had a basis of discipline on the slave and also one on its master that the master be fair to his slave.

Capital Market Efficiency and Its Implication for Financial Reporting

Capital market efficiency has been a widely debated topic since the term was introduced. The efficient market hypothesis was introduced by Eugene Fama in 1970 and is one of the most important topics that is covered in financial accounting theory. There have been many papers and studies that have backed the efficiency market hypothesis. There have also been many others that have tried to show that the markets are inefficient. Are securities markets efficient or not? I believe that they are, and because they are efficient, there are multiple implications of efficient securities markets for financial reporting. In 1970, Eugene Fama introduced the efficient market hypothesis. Since there are many definitions and forms of an efficient securities market, I will focus my attention on the semi-strong form. In the semi-strong form, a market is considered efficient when security prices traded on that market at all times fully reflect all information that is publicly known about those securities. This hypothesis or theory has had many proponents for and many against it in recent years. These people have done their own studies and research on the market trying to either prove or disprove that the markets are efficient. An important statement in the definition of an efficient securities market is publically known. It focuses on the theory that the market prices are efficient and include all publicly known information. It does not rule out that some people will have inside information, and they will know more about the company than the market. Since these people know more than the market, they may be able to earn excess profits on their investments if they choose to take advantage of their inside information. While most insider trading is legal, it is illegal for insiders to trade when they trade with information that is not publicly known to further their own profits. By enacting trading laws, like insider trading, it just further solidifies that the markets are efficient. Market efficiency is a relative concept. This means that the market is efficient relative to the quality and quantity of the publicly known information. Nothing in the definition suggests that the current market prices reflect the real firm value. Due to the possible presence of inside information, for example, the market prices may be incorrect. What the definition does imply is that once new or corrected information comes along the market will adjust the prices quickly. This adjustment happens because rational investors will revise their beliefs. They will start buying and selling securities due to their new beliefs which in turn will change prices. Another important point of the theory is that investing is fair game if the market is efficient. In an efficient market there is an expected return on that security, and one way to establish the expected or normal return is by using the capital asset pricing model. In an efficient market, the investors cannot expect to earn excess returns on a security over and above the expected return of the capital asset pricing model. Under the efficient market hypothesis, a security’s market price should fluctuate randomly over time. The reason that prices will fluctuate is that anything about the firm that can be expected will be properly reflected in the price by the efficient market as soon as the expectation is formed. The only reason that prices in an efficient market will change is if some unexpected and relevant information comes along. By examining a time series form by the sequence of price changes, the time series should fluctuate randomly. A random walk is a time series of price movements that will not follow any patterns or trends and that these past movements cannot be used to predict future price movements. There seems to be an increasing number of people against the theory of market efficiency including Professor Charles Lee (2010). He states that the market efficiency has its limitations. He uses the United States housing market as an example of a market that seems to have been dominated by greed. He believes that emotions now dominate the markets and assist in setting the prices in the securities market. The other emotion that he points out is that of fear. The unwillingness to grant credit and to take risks are direct results of fear. Since these emotions dominate people’s actions, the markets are not as efficient as originally thought. Shiller (1984) created a model which featured two types of agents. The two types of agents are â€Å"smart-money† investors and noise traders (ordinary investors). The smart-money investors focus on fundamental information and react quickly to news about fundamental information in an unbiased manner. Noise traders are vulnerable to fads and may also overreact to news. Noise traders may also trade for consumption-based or liquidity reasons. Since there are noise traders in the market that assist in driving prices, the markets are not completely efficient. Critics of market efficiency also point out that there are several recent instances where the market prices must have been set by psychological considerations instead of by rational investors. The first example is the stock market crash of October 1987. During this crash, the general economic environment stayed the same, but the stock market lost about one-third of its value. A second example is the Internet â€Å"bubble† of the late 1990s. The values assigned to high-tech and Internet related companies were inconsistent with rational valuation. In looking at market efficiency, any large swings upwards or crashes downward that do not have related unexpected information can be signs that the market is not efficient. Despite these cases and examples of reasons that the market is inefficient, I believe that for the most part the market is efficient. It is not completely efficient, nor will it ever be, but for the most part the securities are properly priced. I believe that if the market was not efficient, there would be more professional investors that would be able to beat the market as a whole. I believe that with the information and the speed with which it is available today it is more efficient than in 1970 when Fama first introduced market efficiency. I do agree with the notion that there are some people who invest with emotions. When you talk to people about a company such as Apple, you will find just as many people who â€Å"love† the company as you will who dislike it. My feeling is that most of the emotion trading will for the most part cancel out and will not represent enough trading to dramatically adjust market securities prices. There are many fund managers who believe that they can outperform the market. Efficient markets depend on these participants who think that the market is inefficient and trade in the market in an attempt to outperform the market. Jensen (1968) performed the first study of mutual fund performance. He found that active fund managers underperformed the market and were unable to add value. In my personal research, I have found that when looking at â€Å"professional† analysts opinions, they are all over the board. My belief is that fund managers should focus more on correctly diversifying people’s portfolios than suggesting and trying to get them to invest in securities that they feel are undervalued. In order for the market to be efficient, the arket must be able to quickly analyze and adjust prices for new information. Nowadays with the Internet, investment journals that come out daily, and television shows and channels related to securities markets, the markets are more efficient than in the past. An example of the market being able to react quickly was in the article â€Å"The Stock Price Reaction to the Challenger Crash: Information Disclosure in an Efficient Market. â€Å" Maloney and Mulherin found that â€Å"the market pinpointed the guilty party within minutes. Regardless of whether you agree with the efficient securities markets theory or not, there are many implications of efficient securities markets for financial reporting. In W. H. Beaver’s article â€Å"What Should Be the FASB’s Objectives†, he outlines four implications. The first implication is accounting policies adopted by firms do not affect their security prices, as long as policies are disclosed. The accounting policies have no differential cash flow effects, and the information is given so readers can ea sily convert across different policies. The policy that is chosen will affect the reported net income, but it will not directly affect future cash flows and dividends. The efficient market is not fooled by different accounting policies when securities of firms are compared. The second implication is that efficient securities markets go hand in hand with full disclosure. Management should report firm information if the benefits are greater than the costs. Investors use information that is available to them to improve decisions in market efficiency. Confidence in the securities market will increase because of the information available. An important standard of full disclosure is Management Discussion and Analysis. The objective of MD&A is to enhance investor understanding of the issuer’s business by providing supplemental analysis and background material to allow a fuller understanding of the nature of an issuer, its operation, and known prospects for the future. The third implication is that market efficiency implies that financial statement information does not need to be presented in such a form that everyone is able to understand. The majority of investors are educated and will understand the information as presented. They are the ones who buy and sell and will move market prices to an efficient level. Naive investors are then price-protected since they can trust the efficient market to price securities. The final implication is that accountants are in competition with other information providers. With new pertinent information investors will change their beliefs. This revision of beliefs is a continuous process. If accountants did not provide useful, cost-effective information, the usefulness of this function would decline to other information sources. Accounting information is generally useful to investors. The theory of efficient securities markets has been around for more than forty years. The concept should be around for many years to come. As in all theories, there are people that will continue to try to further prove the theory and people that will work to disprove the theory. From all available information and from my experience, I believe that securities markets are efficient. Due to the efficient securities markets, there are many implications for financial reporting.

Portmanteau Words

Portmanteau Words Portmanteau Words Portmanteau Words By Simon Kewin The English language is constantly evolving. The meanings of words drift or even change completely. Sometimes words stop being used altogether and they die out. But at the same time new words are constantly being added.   These new words – neologisms – can be a source of some irritation to traditionalists, especially when there is already a perfectly good word that could have been used. But when neologisms work, when they fulfill a need, they can add greatly to the richness and diversity of the language.   A particular sort of new word are those formed when two existing words are merged to form a new one whose meaning, combines that of the two root words. These are called â€Å"portmanteau† words.   The word â€Å"portmanteau† originally meant a sort of large traveling bag. The writer Lewis Carroll, author of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland etc., was the first to use it to refer to a merged word. Carroll employed quite a few portmanteaux himself. The poem Jabberwocky, for example, contains the word â€Å"chortled†, probably created by combining â€Å"chuckle† and â€Å"snorted†. Similarly â€Å"mimsy† is generally taken as a mixture of â€Å"miserable† and â€Å"flimsy†. Both of these new words are now in the dictionary. For example, the OED defines chortle like this :  Ã¢â‚¬ ¨Ã‚   chortle:   verb laugh in a breathy, gleeful way.  noun a breathy, gleeful laugh.  ORIGIN coined by Lewis Carroll in Through the Looking Glass; probably a blend of CHUCKLE and SNORT. It’s likely that most people who use â€Å"chortle† are unaware it was a word made up in the 1870s.   There are now very many portmanteau words that have become accepted as valid in their own right : â€Å"smog†, â€Å"brunch†, â€Å"infotainment†, â€Å"dumbfound†, â€Å"fanzine†, â€Å"genome†, â€Å"sitcom† and so forth. They key point is that the meaning of the new word is mid-way between the two original words in some way.    Some portmanteaux are less successful. For example, it’s quite common to hear people using the ugly jargon-word â€Å"guesstimate† (or â€Å"guestimate†). This word, clearly, is a mixture of â€Å"guess† and â€Å"estimate†. But all-too often it is employed when â€Å"guess† or â€Å"estimate† would be perfectly clear and accurate.   So should writers feel free to just invent new words? Clearly many have done in the past. Shakespeare, for example, coined a variety of new usages. Perhaps the best advice would be to stick to existing words where they work as this helps keep your writing clear. At the same time, be aware that coining a new word is a possibility. In part it depends on what you are writing. It’s very common, for example, for reporters discussing some new scandal to form a portmanteau with the –gate suffix (i.e. as a reference to Watergate). Thus there is â€Å"Irangate†, â€Å"spygate†, â€Å"climategate† and so forth. A reader seeing one of these new words will instantly be able to grasp its meaning without its needing to be explained. If readers can’t make such an interpretation, however, they won’t know for sure what you intended by the word and your writing will suffer. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:12 Greek Words You Should Know20 Rules About Subject-Verb AgreementMay Have vs. Might Have

Medical Informatics in the Management of Diabetes Essay Example

Medical Informatics in the Management of Diabetes Essay Example Medical Informatics in the Management of Diabetes Paper Medical Informatics in the Management of Diabetes Paper Studies showed that the cost for quality health care increases but it is becoming inefficient when it comes to delivering service. One of the reasons for this is the cost of recordkeeping, a major component in health care. The Health Information Technology (HIT) was introduced for accurate processing of reports and to keep track of the programs and needs of the health care consumers. It will tackle problems posed by cost, access and quality. It refers to computer hardware and software that stores, retrieves and shares health care information for use by health care providers and consumers in decision making. HIT has many benefits in store for the health care system. Health care consumers will be assured that they can get the best medical goods and services from health care systems. They can cut costs while at the same time receiving the best health care there is. Diseases will also be prevented in their early stages. Storing patient medical records electronically allows for improved accuracy and privacy of records. It is easier to track individual records when needed and the health care providers can input or change data easier and faster. Besides being cost effective, storing records electronically helps doctors in making quicker and better informed decisions. The patients will also be assured that their medical records and in good hands. But this form of keeping records may be inefficient at times. A provider might input data on the wrong record. Electronic medical records are not protected, and this leads to a more serious problem. The biggest problem that seems to arise from this is on privacy. With a click of the mouse, it is easier to look into someone’s personal health information and it can be passed around without the patient knowing it. This would make many patients vulnerable especially when their records are used for purposes other than medical. REFERENCE Sennet, Cary and Daniel Wolfson. (2006). Taming Health Care Inefficiency. Diabetes is a serious medical condition characterized by the inability of the body to regulate glucose levels in the blood. In Type 1, which is usually childhood onset, the pancreas does not produce insulin, a hormone that is necessary for cells to absorb glucose and utilize it for metabolism. In the more common and usually adult onset Type 2, the body produces insulin but at insufficient levels or cells in the body have a reduced sensitivity to the hormone, hence unable to absorb insulin (American Diabetes Association, 2008). The high glucose levels or hyperglycemia in diabetics is the primary cause for life threatening complications which include heart disease, kidney failure, nerve damage, damage to blood vessels, necrosis in the extremities resulting in amputation, stroke, ketoacidosis leading to diabetic coma and prolonged emptying of gastric contents (American Diabetes Association, 2008). Diabetes also significantly increases the risks to developing glaucoma, cataracts and if unmanaged, eventually leads to blindness. The treatment for diabetes is a complex process which involves resolving the high blood glucose levels, preventing minor complications from becoming full blown, managing symptoms and major complications as well as instituting appropriate lifestyle changes. Medications and insulin shots, regular retinopathy and urine ketone tests, continuous blood glucose monitoring, diet and exercise and proper foot care are some of the treatment methods (Schaffer, 2008). Because there is currently no cure for the disease and treatment is both rigorous and long term, diabetics need to learn self-monitoring skills for ketones and blood glucose levels, self-administration of insulin and medications, how to buy and store diabetes supplies as well as weight and nutrition management in order to avert emergency conditions (Schaffer, 2008). When serious complications arise, these are usually treated through intensive medications, surgery and kidney transplants in the event of irreversible kidney damage. Current Equipment Used by Diabetics There are classes of equipment that are currently being used by diabetics and their caregivers in treating the disease. Bio signals, biomedical devices, insulin pumps, continuous glucose monitoring devices, insulin pens and pumps, retinopathy screening machines, blood glucose monitors, lancets and lancing devices are such equipment where most can be used in the home setting and limit the need for daily visits to the health care facility while providing effective treatment. Insulin pumps, such as the MiniMed Paradigm ® 722, are devices consisting of a computer, a pump with insulin supply and a catheter inserted into the abdominal fat of a diabetic (Hurd, 2007). They are meant to replace individual insulin shots and allow greater control over insulin dosage to fit one’s activity, food intake and glucose levels. Dosage information is entered into the computer which pumps the exact amount through the catheter. Insulin pens, like the HumaPen ® LUXURAâ„ ¢ HD, are used to self-administer insulin and have pre-filled cartridges of up to 300 units, a needle at one end, a plunger at the other and look like pen markers (Douglass, 2008). Indicators in the pen provide information as to the range of doses that can be administered, amount of insulin left, the date/time/dosages of insulin taken recently or how to fix wrong dosage instructions. The MiniMed Paradigm ® REAL-Time Continuous Glucose Monitoring System is a small device composed of glucose sensors, a transmitter, an alarm and a small computer that are continually attached to the abdomen (Minimed. com, 2008). The sensors transmit a blood glucose measurement per minute that transmitted and displayed on the computer screen as well as mean measurements per 5 minutes, glucose level trends and their direction. Abnormal glucose levels trigger the alarm. Blood glucose monitors may either come as blood glucose meters such as PocketChem EZ or chemical test strips which are visually compared to a color chart to obtain a reading. Glucose meters require a test strip and a lancet. A drop of blood is smeared on the strip to be fed into the meter which supplies a measurement (Douglass, 2008). PocketChem EZ can store more than 200 downloadable test results with time and dates indicated. A lancet is a metal with a needle like end used to prick the finger or alternative sites in the body to obtain minute amounts of blood for testing and are held in lancing devices to facilitate usage. An example is the Vitalcare Lancet Device which looks like a pen and uses Vitalcare lancets or other standard lancets (Douglass, 2008). The sterile lancet is placed in a holder inside the pen and slight pressure directed at the trigger will release it. A digital retinal camera such as the Canon CF-1 is used for retinopathy or diabetic eye disorder screening. After eye drops are applied to enlarge the patient’s pupils, high resolution diagnostic images of the posterior portion of the eyes are obtained for analysis (Canon. com, 2008). The CF-1 comes with a Retinal Imaging Control Software and conforms to the Digital Imaging and Communication in Medicine interface allowing images to be integrated into other image management systems as well as allows the device to connect to various network configurations (Canon. com, 2008). Biosignals are any measurable electrical and non-electrical signals in the human body while biomedical devices entail the use of living organisms and their processes in the treatment of disease (Singh, 2006). An application with regards to diabetes is the technique of attaching a pouch which contains transplanted insulin-producing cells into large veins where they can proliferate and yield much needed insulin (Kanaujia, 2007). Modern Technologies Used in the Treatment of Diabetes With the wealth of data that a diabetic has to contend with in dealing with his/her condition, organizational tools are necessary in order to generate accurate, useful and timely information for a more efficient and effective self-management of the disease in coordination with her health care team. For instance, the diabetic has to acquire information regarding the anticipated effects of foods she plans to eat or activities she wants to engage in on her glucose levels. The diabetic then has to calculate the dosage of insulin that she should receive and when. She may have other medications that have their own dosage instructions. She also has regular schedules for urine tests and retinal screening. She has to keep tabs of her supply of insulin, lancets and test strips. She has to regularly monitor her glucose levels, vitals signs and her weight. She has to adhere to physician recommended foot care and other treatments. Advances in the field of medical informatics has allowed for the integrated use of information, communication and medical technologies in managing patient data and has enhanced many other facets of health care. However, medical informatics does not only benefit the health care team but also individual patients such as diabetics. The diffusion of technology allowed systems and devices to be adapted and manufactured for patient use. A set of managerial tools that collectively work to enable a much simpler but more precise diabetes self-management is the Diabetes Pilotâ„ ¢. It is a software designed and tested by diabetics to replace the conventional method of manually writing down data onto paper and has three versions – the Diabetes Pilot Desktop, the Diabetes Pilot for Palm Handhelds and the Diabetes Pilot for Pocket PC (diabetespilot. com, 2007). The Diabetes Pilotâ„ ¢ enables patients to log various data such as their glucose level readings, compliance with their insulin and other drug regimens, meals taken per day, fitness workouts accomplished, blood pressure measurements, results of routine tests as well as other pertinent information into reports (diabetespilot. com, 2007). The Medication Totals report, Exercise Totals report and the Blood Pressure List report are examples of listings of different data categories. The software also provides a database containing information on the nutritive values of thousands of foods and through the Meal Listing and Daily Food Summary reports, aids the diabetic in determining the amount of carbohydrates, calories, fats, proteins, fiber, sodium, cholesterol, vitamins and other minerals they obtained from individual meals or from all meals taken during the day (diabetespilot. com, 2007). This provides for an effective way of establishing and maintaining a diet suitable for the diabetic. Like the MiniMed Paradigm ® REAL-Time Continuous Glucose Monitoring System, the Diabetes Pilotâ„ ¢ also features tabular or graphical representations of blood glucose level pattern in order for the diabetic to easily perceive the direction of such patterns and adjust her insulin dosages or medications accordingly. Mean measurements by hour, by day or by month can also be calculated as well as the highest and lowest readings taken. Options regarding what system the diabetic wishes to use to categorize data are also available and aimed at establishing significant trends in self care over a period of time. Because the Diabetes Pilotâ„ ¢ is not meant to replace physician care entirely with self-care, all records made by the diabetic can be communicated to her health care team for evaluation and further recommendations using a variety of methods. A similar product but only applicable to Palm PDA is the Universal Tracking System (UTS) Diabetes Palm PDA software. Among its features, data can be transformed into MS Excel format and has an E-mail Report application so that the patient can send the file to her physician (Universal Tracking System, 2007). Automatic calculation of insulin dosage based on glucose measurement is also accomplished. Aside from allowing data entry, the UTS can turn out a summary of the reports and interactive graphical representation of data which will enhance patient and physician decision making with regards to dosage adjustments. Color coding also effectively indicates if the glucose level is normal, high or low and in mg/dL or mmol/L units (Universal Tracking System, 2007). A similar database of food but also includes medications and insulin types is further provided. Medical Informatics’ Areas of Interest in the Treatment of Diabetes The largely fragmented health care system allows for many weaknesses with regards to caring for diabetic patients in that efforts are largely centered on acute conditions and serious complications rather than on chronic disease management. This poses significant challenges even for those in the area of medical informatics. In response, successful efforts have been made to develop a diabetes registry population management application aimed at integrating the chronic disease registry (an informatics system) into the clinical workflow (Zai et. al. , 2008). In terms of decision support, efforts have also been made in developing a model system for classifying knowledge in the area of insulin regimen specifications and dose adjustment in consideration of such factors as diabetes type, patient age, current treatment, glucose profile, physical activity, food intake and desirable blood glucose control Gogou et. al. , 2001). When a physician makes a decision, he relies on practice, intuition and knowledge. However, a knowledge classification system will enhance and standardize decision-making. With available organizational tool devices for diabetic patients, the need to integrate patient derived data into her medical records in the hospital’s EMR system is imminent. One such project is the Informatics for Diabetes Education and Telemedicine (IDEATel). Patients are equipped with a specialized computer called the Home Telemedicine Unit (HTU) with the following: 1. a video camera and microphone for videoconferencing with physicians, 2. a home glucose monitoring device which directly uploads readings, 3. accessibility of the patients’ self-derived medical data, and 4. patient access to educational websites (Starren, et. al. , 2006). With regards to diagnosing diabetic retinopathy via digital retinal cameras, the accuracy of human visual analysis can be increased with the aid of computers. The presence of fluids in the macular region of the eye is a major indicator of retinopathy and its detection is a significant diagnostic activity wherein computers may extend assistance (Walter, Klein, Massin and Erginay, 2002). An algorithm for exudate detection is currently in use which employs the characteristic high grey level variation and contours of exudates with the optic disc as point of reference (Walter, Klein, Massin and Erginay, 2002). Finally, biosignaling is also an important concern of medical informatics. In a recently developed application known as the Emer-Loc, emergency medical situations for diabetic patients may be speedily responded to from the use of location-based biosignaling (Maglogiannis and Hadjiefthymiades, 2007). The system employs sensors affixed to the patients body, a micro-computing unit which processes sensor readings and a central monitoring unit to coordinate data flow (Maglogiannis and Hadjiefthymiades, 2007). Global positioning system (GPS) is used to locate the patient if her signals correspond to an emergency condition. List of References American Diabetes Association (2008). Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from diabetes. org/type-1-diabetes/treatment-conditions. jsp. BD diabetes. com (2008). Insulin Pens. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from bddiabetes. com/US/main. aspx? cat=1id=254. Childrenwithdiabetes. com (2005). Auto-Lancet Adjustable. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from childrenwithdiabetes. com/d_06_2a7. htm. Diabetespilot. com (2008). Diabetes Pilot: Information Management for People with Diabetes. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from diabetespilot. com/index. php? ref=5gclid=CPiG5b2TwpYCFQeO1Qodm iMAzg. Douglass, K. (2008). New Products. Diabetes Forecast 2008 Resource Guide. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from diabetes. org/uedocuments/df-rg-new-products- 0108. pdf. Gogou, G. , Maglaveras, N. , Ambrosiadou, B. V. , Goulis, D. and Pappas, C. (2001). â€Å"A Neural Approach in Diabetes Management by Insulin Administration†. Journal of Medical Systems 2(25): 119-131. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from http://portal. acm. org/citation. cfm? id=609076. Hurd, R. (2007). Insulin Pump. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from nlm. nih. gov/ /ency/imagepages/18035. htm. Kanaujia, M. (2007). New Device to Treat Diabetes and Fulminant Liver Failure. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from medgear. org/page/4/. Maglogiannis, I. and Hadjiefthymiades, S. (2007). EmerLoc: Location-Based Services for Emergency Medical Incidents. International Journal of Medical Informatics 76(10): 747-759. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from find-health-articles. com/rec_pub_16949860-emerloc-location-based-services-emergency-medical-incidents. htm. Minimed. com (2008). MiniMed Paradigm Real-Time System. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from minimed. com/products/insulinpumps/components/minilink. html. Schaffer, A. (2008). New York Times Health Guide: Diabetes. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from http://health. nytimes. com/health/guides/disease/diabetes/overview. html. Singh, V. (2006). Introduction to Biosignals. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from ee. unimelb. edu. au/ISSNIP/multimedia/events/workshop22_09_06_final. p df. Starren, J. , Hilliman, C. , Weinstock, R. S. , Shea, S. and IDEATel Consortium (2006). â€Å"Theater Style Demonstration: The Informatics for Diabetes Education and Telemedicine (IDEATel) Project†. American Medical Informatics Association Annual Symposium Proceedings 2006. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from pubmedcentral. nih. gov/articlerender. fcgi? artid=1839417. Universal Tracking System (2007). UTS Diabetes Palm PDA Software. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from utracksys. com/plugins/diabetes/? ref=gaw_soft. Walter, T. , Klein, J. , Massin, P. and Erginay, A. (2002). â€Å"A Contribution of Image Processing to the Diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy†. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 10(21): 1236- 1243. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from http://cat. inist. fr/? aModele=afficheNcpsidt=14504609. Zai, A. H. , Grant, R. W. , Estey, G. , Lester, W. T. , Andrews, C. T. , Yee, R. et. al. (2008). â€Å"Lessons From Implementing a Combined Workflow-Informatics System for Diabetes Management†. JAMIA 15: 524-533. Retrieved 27 October 2008 from jamia. org/cgi/content/short/15/4/524.